A
Abiotic stress. Outside (nonliving) factors which can cause harmful effects to plants, such as soil conditions, drought, and extreme temperatures.
Abscisic acid A plant growth regulator involved in abscission, dormancy, stomatal opening/closure, and inhibition of seed germination. It also affects the regulation of somatic cell embryogenesis in some plant species.
Absorption. The process by which one substance is taken into the body of another substance
Acclimatization - The adaptation of a living organism (plant, animal or micro-organism) to a changed environment that subjects it to physiological stress. Acclimatization should not be confused with adaptation (q.v.). cf acquired.
Acid rain - the precipitation of dilute solutions of strong mineral acids, formed by the mixing in the atmosphere of various industrial pollutants -- primarily sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides -- with naturally occurring oxygen and water vapor.
Act - in the legislative sense, a bill or measure passed by both houses of Congress; a law.
Actinomycetes. Filamentous bacteria, many of which are valuable in the production of antibiotics.
Activated charcoal-activated carbon Charcoal which has been treated to remove hydrocarbons and to increase its adsorptive properties. It acts by condensing and holding a gas or solute onto its surface; thus inhibitory substances in nutrient medium may be adsorbed to charcoal included in the medium. Rooting factors such as phenolamines present as contaminants in charcoal may stimulate growth in vitro. Its addition to rooting medium may stimulate root initiation in some plant species. Activated charcoal may differ in origin and in composition. cf charcoal; phenolic oxidation.
Activated sludge method. A method of sewage treatment in which wastes are degraded by complex populations of aerobic micro-organisms.
Adjournment - the end of a legislative day or session.
Adsorption - is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent.
Advanced waste treatment. The removal of noncarbonaceous materials such as excess phosphorus and nitrogen. The term implies treatment beyond secondary treatment, and advanced treatment is most effective after the organic matter has been removed.
Aerobe. A micro-organism that grows in the presence of oxygen. See Anaerobe.
Aerobes. Organisms that can only exist with free oxygen, i.e. that have aerobing breathing.
Aerobic organisms. Organisms that can utilize oxygen as the final electron acceptor during metabolism.
Aerosol - a suspension of small liquid or solid particles in gas.
Agar. A gelatinous polysaccharide, extracted from Ceylon moss that is used to prepare solid media for cultivating bacteria.
Agro ecosystem. A community of microorganisms, plants and animals, together with their abiotic environment, that occurs on farmed land, and including the crop species.
Agrobacterium. A genus of bacteria that includes several plant pathogenic species, causing tumour-like symptoms.
Air pollution - toxic or radioactive gases or particulate matter introduced into the atmosphere, usually as a result of human activity.
Air pollution. Air is made up of a number of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen and, in smaller amounts, water vapour, carbon dioxide and argon and other trace gases. Air pollution occurs when harmful chemicals and particles are emitted to the air – due to human activity or natural forces – at a concentration that interferes with human health or welfare or that harms the environment in other ways.
Air Quality. A measure of the level of pollution in the air.
Algae. A group of simple aquatic plants capable of photosynthesis.
Algae. Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients. They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small aquatic animals. (Source: US EPA)
Algal biomass. Single-celled plants (e.g. Chlorella spp. and Spirulina spp.) grown
Algal Blooms. Sudden spurts of algal growth, which can affect water quality adversely and indicate potentially hazardous changes in local water chemistry. (Source: US EPA)
Allergen: A substance, usually a protein, that can cause an allergy or allergic reaction in the body.
Allergy: A reaction by the body's immune system after exposure to a particular substance, often a protein.
Alternative energy - energy that is not popularly used and is usually environmentally sound, such as solar or wind energy (as opposed to fossil fuels).
Alternative fibers - fibers produced from non-wood sources for use in paper making.
Alternative fuels - transportation fuels other than gasoline or diesel. Includes natural gas, methanol, and electricity.
Alternative transportation - modes of travel other than private cars, such as walking, bicycling, rollerblading, carpooling and transit.
Amendment - a change or addition to an existing law or rule.
Ammonia fertilizer. A material with a high concentration of nitrogen compounds put on soil to stimulate plant growth.
Anabolism. The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones. All biosynthetic reactions in a living organism.
Anaerobe. An organism that grows in the absence of oxygen. See Aerobe.
Anthropogenic: Occurring as a result of a human influence.
Antimicrobial agent. Any chemical or biological agent that harms the growth of microorganisms. Agricultural Biotechnology: A range of tools, including traditional breeding techniques, that alter living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve plants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific agricultural uses. Modern biotechnology today includes the tools of genetic engineering.
Autotrophy Autotrophy is the capacity of an organism to use light as the sole energy source in the synthesis of organic material from inorganic elements or compounds. Autotrophic organisms include green photosynthesizing plants and some photosynthetic bacteria. cf heterotrophy.
Axillary bud A bud found at the axil of a leaf (synonymous with lateral bud).
Axillary bud proliferation Propagation in culture using protocols and media which promote axillary (lateral shoot) growth. This is a technique for mass production (micropropagation) of plantlets in culture, achieved primarily through hormonal inhibition of apical dominance and stimulation of lateral branching.
B
Bacillus thuringiensis (Abbreviation: Bt). A bacterium that produces a toxin against certain insects, particularly Coloeopteraand Lepidoptera; a major means of insecticide for organic farming. Some of the toxin genes are important for transgenic approaches to crop protection.
Bacillus. A rod-shaped bacterium.
Bacterium. A single-celled, microscopic prokaryotic organism: a single cell organism without a distinct nucleus.
Bacteriophage A virus that infects bacteria. Also called simply phage. Altered forms are used in DNA cloning work, where they are convenient vectors. The bacteriophages most used are derived from two "wild" phages, called M13 and lambda (l). Lambda phages are used to clone segments of DNA in the range of around 10-20 kb. They are lytic phages, i.e., they replicate by lysing their host cell and releasing more phages. On a bacteriological plate, this results in a small clear zone - a plaque. Some lambda vectors have also been developed which are expression vectors (q.v.). The M13 system can grow inside a bacterium, so that it does not destroy the cell it infects but causes it to make new phages continuously. It is a single-stranded DNA phage, and is used for the Sanger di-deoxy DNA sequencing method (see DNA sequencing). Both of these phages grow on Escherichia coli as a host bacterium.
Baculovirus. A type of virus that specifically infects insect cells.
Bio-accumulation. A problem that can arise when a stable chemical such as a heavy metal or DDT is introduced into a natural environment. Where there are no agents present able to biodegrade it, its concentration can increase as it passes up the food chain and higher organisms may suffer toxic effects. This phenomenon may be employed beneficially for the removal of toxic metals from wastewater, and for bioremediation.
Bio-assay A procedure for the assessment of a substance by measuring its effect in living cells or on organisms. Animals have been used extensively in drug research in bio-assays for the pharmacological activity of drugs. However, bio-assays are now usually developed using bacteria or animal or plant cells, as these are usually much easier to handle than whole animals or plants, are cheaper to make and keep, and avoid the ethical problems associated with testing of animals. Sometimes used to detect minute amounts of substances that influence or are essential to growth.
Biocides. Agents that kill living organims . Sometimes the term is used as a synonym for pesticides.
Biocontrol. Pest control by biological means. Any process using deliberately introduced living organisms to restrain the growth and development of other organisms, such as the introduction of predatory insects to control an insect pest. Synonym:biological control.
Bioconversion. Conversion of one chemical into another by living organisms, as opposed to their conversion by isolated enzymes or fixed cells, or by chemical processes. Particularly useful for introducing chemical changes at specific points in large and complex molecules.
Biodegradable. Capable of being biodegraded.
Biodegradation. The breakdown of substances by micro-organisms. Mainly aerobic bacteria.
Biodegrade. The breakdown by micro-organisms of a compound to simpler chemicals. Materials that are easily biodegraded are colloquially termed biodegradable.
Biodiesel. An alternative fuel for use in diesel engines that is made from natural renewable sources such animal fats or vegetable oils, and does not contain petroleum. It has similar properties to petroleum but releases fewer environmental pollutants in its emissions. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications, either as a diesel fuel substitute, or added to petroleum-based fuels to reduce their polluting effect. Examples include oils from soybeans, rapeseed, sunflowers or animal tallow.
Biodiversity. The wide diversity and interrelatedness of earth organisms based on genetic and environmental factors.
Bio-energetics The study of the flow and the transformation of energy that occur in living organisms.
Bioenergy. Energy choices using a wide range of biomass sources (for example, agriculture, forestry, industry and municipal waste) and conversion technologies such as fermentation (alcohol production) and co-firing (co-combustion of biomass and coal). Also identifies linkages to wider sustainable development outcomes, critical economic, environmental and security benefits (such as adding value to farm, forestry and other industries) and reducing fossil fuel use (product displacement), waste streams, emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
Bioengineering. Engineering applied to biological and medical systems, such as biomechanics, biomaterials and biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engineering, as in the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing body organs.
Bio-enrichment Adding nutrients or oxygen to increase microbial breakdown of pollutants.
Bioethics (and biomedical ethics): A discipline that studies the ethical implications of biological applications.
Biofilms. A layer of micro-organisms growing on a surface, in a bed of polymeric material which they themselves have made. Biofilms tend to form wherever a surface on which bacteria can grow is exposed to some suitable medium and a supply of bacteria.
Biofouling. Living organisms that attach to and start living on any object that is submerged in the sea. Commonly seen as barnacles attached to the hulls of ships or the bodies of whales.
Biofuel. A gaseous, liquid or solid fuel derived from a biological source, e.g. ethanol, rapeseed oil or fish liver oil.
Biogas. A mixture of methane and carbon dioxide resulting from the anaerobic decomposition of waste such as domestic, industrial and agricultural sewage.
Biohazard: A biological agent, such as an infectious microorganism, or a condition that constitutes a threat to humans, especially in biological research or experimentation. The potential danger, risk, or harm from exposure to such an agent or condition.
Bioinformatics. The generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish an objective (for example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).
Bioinformatics: The generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish an objective (for example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).
Bioleaching The recovery of metals from their ores, using the action of micro-organisms, rather than chemical or physical treatment. For example, Thiobacillus ferroxidans has been used to extract gold from refractory ores.
Biological control. The control of a population of one organism by another organism. Generally the controlling organism is a predator or disease-causing organism of the species being controlled.
Biological products / Biological / Biologics. Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in the prevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.
Biological products / Biologicals / Biologics: Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in the prevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.
Biomass concentration. The amount of biological material in a specific volume.
Biomass. Any organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis such as trees and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose), but also poultry litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipal solid waste (for example, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).
Biomass. The total dry weight of all organisms in a particular sample, population, or area.
Biomass: Any organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis such as trees and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose), but also poultry litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipal solid waste (for example, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).
Biomimetic materials. Employed to describe synthetic analogues of natural materials with advantageous properties. For instance, some synthetic molecules act chemically like natural proteins, but are not as easily degraded by the digestive system. Other systems such as reverse micelles and/or liposome exhibit certain properties that mimic certain aspects of living systems.
Biopesticides. A product made from natural sources such as bacteria, animals or plants that is used for pest control. They tend to have less of an impact on the environment and human health because they are less toxic than conventional pesticides and usually affect only one specific pest instead of being broad-range. They can also work in low amounts, they break down quickly and when used properly, they can reduce the use of conventional pesticides while maintaining crop yields.
Biopharmaceuticals: This term is sometimes used for biologic drugs produced through rDNA technology, but essentially they also fall under the regulatory definition of a biologic.
Biopiracy. The patenting of genetic stocks, and the subsequent privatization of genetic resources collections. The term implies a lack of consent on the part of the originator.
Bioprocess. Any process that uses complete living cells or their components (e.g. enzymes, chloroplasts) to effect desired physical or chemical changes.
Bioreactor. A tank in which cells, cell extracts or enzymes carry out a biological reaction. Often refers to a fermentation vessel for cells or micro-organisms.
Biorecovery. The use of micro-organisms for the recovery of valuable materials (metals or particular organic compounds) from complex mixtures. See: biodesulphurization, bioleaching.
Bioremediation. The use of plants and micro-organisms to consume or otherwise help remove materials (such as toxic chemical wastes and metals) from contaminated sites (especially from soil and water). A natural process in which environmental problems are treated by the use of bacteria or other micro-organisms that break down a problem substance, such as oil, into less harmful molecules.
Bioremediation. The use of microorganisms to remedy environmental problems. See Bioaugmentation, Bioenrichment.
Biosafety protocol. An inteRNAtionally agreed protocol set up to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by the release of genetically modified organisms. It establishes a procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory.Synonym: Cartagena protocol. See: Convention on biological diversity.
Biosafety. Referring to the avoidance of risk to human health and safety, and to the conservation of the environment, as a result of the use for research and commerce of infectious or genetically modified organisms.
Biosensing. Technology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents, including bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.
Biosensing: Technology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents, including bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.
Biosensor. A device that uses an immobilized biologically-related agent (such as an enzyme, antibiotic, organelle or whole cell) to detect or measure a chemical compound. Reactions between the immobilized agent and the molecule being analysed are converted into an electric signal.
Biosilk. A biomimetic fibre produced by the expression of the relevant orb-weaving spider genes in yeast or bacteria, followed by the spinning of the expressed protein into a fibre.
Biosorbents. Micro-organisms which, either by themselves or in conjunction with a substrate are able to extract and/or concentrate a desired molecule by means of its selective retention. See: bio-accumulation.
Biosphere. The part of the earth and its atmosphere that is inhabited by living organisms.
Biosynthesis. Synthesis of compounds by living cells, which is the essential feature of anabolism.
Biotechnologists. Scientists who use biological processes to develop novel products.
Biotechnology. The scientific manipulation of living organ- isms, especially at the molecular genetic level, to produce useful products. Gene splicing and use of recombinant DNA (rDNA) are major techniques used.
Bioterrorism: The use of bacteria, viruses or toxins with the intent of causing harm to people, animals or food to achieve certain political, religious or ideological goals through intimidation.
Biotic stress. Living organisms which can harm plants , such as viruses, fungi, and bacteria, and harmful insects. See Abiotic stress.
Biotoxin: A naturally produced toxic compound which shows pronounced biological activity and presumably has some adaptive significance to the organism which produces it.
Biotransformation. The conversion of one chemical or material into another using a biological catalyst: a near synonym is biocatalysis, and hence the catalyst used is called a biocatalyst. Usually the catalyst is an enzyme, or a fixed whole, dead micro-organism
Biotreatment. The treatment of a waste or hazardous substance using organisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa (see bioremediation).
Basidiomycetes: a large group of fungi including puffballs, shelf fungi, rusts, smuts, and mushrooms that bear sexually produced spores on a basidium.
Bioaugmentation is the process that is applied when microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance degradation.
Biofertilizers are preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient microbial strains used for application to seed or plant surfaces. The objective is to accelerate those microbial processes that augment the availability of nutrients that can be easily assimilated by plants.
C
Capsule. A gelatinous structure that surrounds some bacteria.
Coccus. Spherical bacteria. Compost. A rich soil-like material produced from decayed plants and other organic matter, such as food and animal waste, that decomposes (breaks down) naturally. Most food waste can be put into compost, but you should not include meat, bones, cheese, cooking oils and fish. These may take a long time to break down and attract unwanted pests.
Coenzyme. A small organic molecule that transfers small molecules from one enzyme to another.
Coliform. Gram negative rods resembling E.coli and similar species that normally in habit the colon.
Coliform bacteria. A group of bacteria that are normally abundant in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals and are used as indicators when testing the sanitary quality of water.
Climate: The prevailing, long-term, meteorological conditions of a place or region, including temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and other factors. Compare with weather.
Climate change: Long-term changes in air, soil, or water temperature; precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.Colonization. Establishment of a site of reproduction of microbes on a material, animal, or person without necessarily resulting in tissue invasion or damage.
Colony. A goup of bacteria in a culture derived from the multiplication of single cell ; usually visible to the unaided eye.
Conservation. The preservation or protection from decay or destruction of anything whose loss it is desirable to prevent.
Community. Any naturally occurìng group of organisms that occupy a common enviroment. The term is a general one, covering groups of various sizes. A grouping of interacting populations in a particular habitat.
Cross: The mating of two individuals or populations.
Cross hybridization: The annealing of a single-stranded DNA sequence to a single-stranded target DNA to which it is only partially complementary. Often, this refers to the use of a DNA probe to detect homologous sequences in species other than the origin of the probe.
Cross pollination: Application of pollen from one plant to another to effect the latter's fertilization.
Cross pollination efficiency: The ease with which cross pollination can be achieved. Generally measured by the number of hybrid progeny generated per flower pollinated.
Cross-breeding: Mating between members of different populations (lines, breeds, races or species).
Crossing over: The process by which homologous chromosomes exchange material at meiosis through the breakage and reunion of non-sister chromatids.See: recombination, chiasma.
Cryobiological preservation: The preservation of germplasm resources in a dormant state by storage at ultra-low temperatures, often in liquid nitrogen. Currently applied to storage of plant seeds and pollen, micro-organisms, animal sperm, and tissue culture cell lines. Synonyms: cryopreservation, freeze preservation
Culture. A growth of microorganisms.
Culture medium. A preparation containing nutrients and growth factors suitable for the cultivation of microorganisms.
Cyanobacteria. Blue-green algae.
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.
D
Deforestation: A permanent conversion of forest into some other kind of ecosystem, such as agriculture or urbanized land use.
Demographic transition: A change in human population parameters from a condition of high birth and death rates to one of low birth and death rates.
Denitrification: The microbial reduction of nitrate (NO3–) into gaseous N2O or N2.
Desert: A temperate or tropical biome characterized by prolonged drought, usually receiving less than 25 cm of precipitation per year.
Desertification: The increasing aridity of drylands; an environmental change that can make agriculture difficult or impossible.
Detritivore: A heterotroph that feeds on dead organic matter.
Disposal. In this guide, getting rid of waste by discarding it into a bin and, when it is collected, by incincerating it or sending it to landfill.
Domestic charges. Fees paid to local authorities for providing services such as collecting domestic waste.
Domestic waste. Waste produced within the home, including garden waste. See also household waste.
Drift: Movement of applied pesticide off the intended site of deposition through atmospheric or aquatic transport.
Dry wastes. which can be collected by the containers for valuable materials such as glass, paper, cardboard, plastics, metals and similar recyclable wastes.
Dumping. Disposing of waste illegally by not using bins or official recycling centres, civic amenity sites or landfills.
E
Ecological conversion: A long-term change in the character of the ecosystem at some place, as when a natural forest is converted into an agricultural land use.
Ecological footprint: The area of ecoscape (i.e., landscape and seascape) required to supply a human population with the necessary food, materials, energy, waste disposal, and other crucial goods and services.
Ecological integrity (ecosystem health): A notion related to environmental quality, but focusing on changes in natural populations and ecosystems, rather than effects on humans and their economy. See also environmental quality.
Ecological justice: A worldview in which all species (i.e., not just humans) have a right to equitable access to the necessities of life and happiness. See also social justice.
Ecological pyramid: A model of the trophic structure of an ecosystem, organized with plant productivity on the bottom, that of herbivores above, and carnivores above the herbivores.
Ecological service: An ecological function that is useful to humans and to ecosystem stability and integrity, such as nutrient cycling, productivity, and control of erosion.
Ecological values: Broader utilitarian values that are based on the needs of humans, but also on those of other species and natural ecosystems.
Ecologically sustainable development: This considers the human need for resources within an ecological context, and includes the need to sustain all species and all components of Earth’s life-support system. Compare with sustainable development.
Ecology: The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.
Effective Microorganisms (EM) are natural microorganisms existing freely in nature, and, when applied as single strains or mixtures, may serve to improve the quality and fertility of soil as well as the growth and quality of crops.
E. coli (Escherichia coli). A bacterium found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. It is used extensively in recombinant DNA research because it has been genetically well characterized.
Environment. It is an outer media in which human or another living being sustain own interactions during their life. The physical elements of this media are air, water and soil; the biological elements are producers (plants), utilizers (animals) and decomposers (bacteria and fungus); the economical environmental elements are the activities of human, which are related with utilization and operation of natural, human, economical and materialistic sources; the social elements are demographic structure, and historical and cultural infrastructure of human, and the type of life with respect to accomodation, health, education and culture demands. The physical , chemical and biotic conditions surrounding a living organism.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The federal agency of the US government, established in 1970, that is responsible for dealing with the pollution of air and water by solid waste, pesticides and radiation and with nuisances caused by noise.
Environmental quality standards. The maximum limits or concentrations of pollutants that are permitted in specific media.
Environmental protection. That part of resource management which is concerned with the discharge into the environment of substances that might be harmful, or that might have harmful physical effects and with safeguarding beneficial uses.
Environmental risk: A hazard or probability of suffering damage or misfortune because of exposure to some environmental circumstance.
Environmental risk assessment: A quantitative evaluation of the risks associated with an environmental hazard.
Environmental science: An interdisciplinary branch of science that investigates questions related to the human population, resources, and damages caused by pollution and disturbance.
Environmental scientist: A scientist who is specialized in some aspect of environmental science.
Environmental security: The protection of people and the public interest from environmental risks, particularly those associated with anthropogenic activities and accidents, but may also include natural dangers.
Environmental studies: An extremely interdisciplinary approach that examines the scientific, social, and cultural aspects of environmental issues.
Environmental teratogen: A teratogenic influence that is encountered in the environment. See also teratogen.
Environmental toxicology: The study of environmental factors influencing exposures of organisms to potentially toxic levels of chemicals. Compare with toxicology and ecotoxicology.
Environmental values: Perceptions of the worth of environmental components, divided into two broad classes: utilitarian and intrinsic.
Erosion: The physical removal of rocks and soil through the combined actions of flowing water, wind, ice, and gravity.
Estuary: A coastal, semi-enclosed ecosystem that is open to the sea and has habitats transitional between marine and freshwater conditions.
Eukaryote: Organisms in which the cells have an organized, membrane-bound nucleus containing the genetic material. Compare with prokaryote.
Eutrophic: Pertains to waters that are highly productive because they contain a rich supply of nutrients. Compare with oligotrophic and mesotrophic.
Eutrophication: Increased primary productivity of an aquatic ecosystem, resulting from nutrient inputs.
Evaporation: The change of state of water from a liquid or solid to a gas.
Evapotranspiration: Evaporation of water from a landscape. See also transpiration.
Evolution: Genetically based changes in populations of organisms, occurring over successive generations.
Evolutionary ecology: The interpretation of ecological knowledge in terms of evolution, natural selection, and related themes.
Experiment: A controlled test or investigation designed to provide evidence for, or preferably against, a hypothesis about the natural or physical world.
Exposure: In ecotoxicology, this refers to the interaction of organisms with an environmental stressor at a particular place and time.
Exposure assessment: An investigation of the means by which organisms may encounter a potentially toxic level of a chemical or other environmental stressor.
Escherichia coli. A commensal bacterium inhabiting the human colon that is widely used in biology, both as a simple model of cell biochemical function and as a host for molecular cloning experiments.
Eukaryote. An organism whose cells possess a nucleus and other membrane-bound vesicles, including all members of the protist, fungi, plant and animal kingdoms; and excluding viruses, bacteria, and blue-green algae. See Prokaryote.
Ex vivo gene therapy - The delivery of a gene or genes to the isolated cells of an individual. After culturing, the transformed cells are introduced back into the individual by transfusion, infusion or injection, to alleviate a genetic disorder.
F
Fecal coliform. Matter containing or derived from animal or human waste containing one or more of the coliform groups of bacteria.
Fecal streptococcus. Matter containing or derived from animal or human waste containing one or more of the streptococcus groups of bacteria.
Fermentation. The breakdown of organic substances by organisms with the release of energy; espesially the anaerobic breakdown of carbonhydrates by yeasts and bacteria to form carbon dioxide and ethanol or other organic compounds.
Fertilizer. Any substance that is applied to land as a source of nutrients for plant growth.It may be a waste that is being recycled (e.g., farmyard manure, crop residues or compost) or produced industrially.
Field trial: A test of a new technique or variety, including biotech-derived varieties, done outside the laboratory but with specific requirements on location, plot size, methodology, etc.
Filter bioreactor; mesh bioreactor- Cells are grown on an open mesh of an inert material, which allows the culture medium to flow past it but retains the cells. This is similar in idea to membrane and hollow fibre reactors, but can be much easier to set up, being similar to conventional tower bioreactors, but with the meshwork replacing the central reactor space.
Food biotechnology: The application of biotechnology to the production of food.
Food chain: A hierarchical model of feeding relationships among species in an ecosystem.
Food web: A complex model of feeding relationships, describing the connections among all food chains within an ecosystem.
Food-web magnification (food-web accumulation, food-web concentration): The tendency for top predators in a food web to have the highest residues of certain chemicals, especially organochlorines. Compare with bioaccumulation.
Forest floor: Litter and other organic debris lying on top of the mineral soil of a forest.
Forestry: The harvesting of trees and management of post-harvest succession to foster the regeneration of another forest.
Fossil fuel: Organic-rich geological materials, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Food processing enzyme - Enzyme used to control food texture, flavour, appearance and, to a certain extent, nutritional value. Amylases break down complex polysaccharides to simplex sugars; proteases tenderize meat proteins. Biotechnology can assist the development of new food enzymes by finding or engineering enzymes which fit better with the other processes which the food must undergo, like cooking or canning.
Forests - lands on which trees are the principal plant life, usually conducive to wide biodiversity.
Fossil fuel - a fuel, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, produced by the decomposition of ancient (fossilized) plants and animals; compare to alternative energy.
Fungicide. An agent, such as a chemical, that kills fungi.
Fungus. A micro-organism that lacks chlorophyll.
G
General waste. No special treatment is necessary for this waste which can be disposed of with municipal waste. Food waste from tuberculosis or similar category treatment areas should be autuclaved before disposal.
GMAC (Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee). A government expert advisory committee that provided guidance to the government and industry on the safe and responsible development and use of gene technology in Australia before the commencement of the Gene Technology Act 2000 in June 2001.
Genetic modification (GM). Any process that alters the genetic material of living organism. This includes duplicating, deleting or inserting one or more new genes or altering the activities of an existing gene. It can be performed on microbes, plants or animals (humans included). Where this is done in humans, it is gene therapy, and only human genes are used.*
Genetically modified organism (GMO). An organism (plant, animal, bacteria, or virus) that has had its genetic material altered, either by the duplication, insertion or deletion of one or more new genes, or by changing the activities of an existing gene.*
Genetic engineering. The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule to change the information it contains. By changing this information, genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of producing. Genetic engineering allows scientists to isolate a specific gene for a particular trait - such as resistance to insect attack - in a plant or animal, and transfer it into another plant.
Gene therapy: An evolving technique used to treat genetic diseases. The medical procedure involves replacing, manipulating or supplementing non-functional genes with healthy genes so that they can function normally.
Genetic disease: A disease or condition caused by a change or mutation in a gene, or a change in the chromosomes.
Genetic mapping: A research method that collects genetic information to determine the relative position of a gene or a phenotype in the genome.
Genetic marker: A DNA sequence at a unique physical location in the genome, which varies sufficiently between individuals that its pattern of inheritance can be tracked through families and/or it can be used to distinguish among cell types. A marker may or may not be part of a gene. Markers are essential for use in linkage studies and genetic maps to help scientists to narrow down the possible location of new genes, and to discover the associations between genetic mutations and disease.
Genetic privacy: The freedom from unauthorized intrusion. Often referred to as the right to be let alone, it protects territorial, bodily, psychological and informational integrity and decision making. Many of these interests are directly implicated by genetic testing. Informational privacy protects the access, control and spread of personal information. Privacy is essential to maintaining relations of trust. The Supreme Court of Canada has indicated that confidential therapeutic relations enjoy some Charter protection but they are not absolute. Recognized exceptions include those authorized in law, an individual's consent or waiver of privacy, and overriding duties to third parties.
Genetic testing: A laboratory test, done most often on a blood sample, but also on cheek cells, skin cells, bone marrow, amniotic fluid or a placenta sample. It looks at a particular gene for changes, or mutations, that might confirm the diagnosis of a genetic disease or that show a predisposition to a genetic disease.
Genetic toxicology: A research field in which genetic samples from a living organism (including humans) are placed on a DNA microarray (gene chip) and tested in a computerized device for the presence of toxic substances from the environment. It is done to determine if the organism providing the sample has been exposed to specific chemicals which have caused problems such as mutations, cancer and birth defects. The study of the pattern of occurrence
of such biomarkers in a sample of individuals or a community is called genetic epidemiology.
Genetics: The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved in health and disease.
Gene: The basic unit of heredity, located on a chromosome. It is made up of DNA that acts as a blueprint to make a particular protein. The Human Genome Project estimates that humans have over 30,000 genes in their genome. Each one is responsible for a different part of our biology. Every human being (except identical twins) has a unique set of genes, half of which came from their mother and the other half from their father.
Genome: All of an organism's genetic information, including all of the DNA that makes up the genes that are carried on the chromosomes.
Genomics: The study of the entire genome (chromosomes, genes and DNA) and how different genes interact with each other.
Genomics and molecular biology form the basis for modern biotechnology and, more specifically, pharmacogenomics, or the application of genetic analysis to identify potential targets for therapeutic products (drugs, vaccines).
Genotype: The genetic make-up of an individual, usually referring to a particular pair of alleles for a gene that can be related to a particular phenotype of interest.
Germ cell: A reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell), which has 23 chromosomes in humans (haploid).
Green manure: Living plant biomass that is grown and then incorporated into the soil by tillage.
Green revolution: Intensive agricultural systems involving the cultivation of improved crop varieties in monoculture, and increased use of mechanization, fertilizers, and pesticides.
Greenhouse effect: The physical process by which infrared-absorbing gases (such as CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere help to keep the planet warm.
Greenhouses gases (GHGs): Atmospheric gases that efficiently absorb infrared radiation and then dissipate some of the thermal energy gain by re-radiation. Synonym: ** radiatively active gases.
Green revolution. Advances in genetics, petrochemicals, and machinery that culminated in a dramatic increase in crop productivity during the third quarter of the 20th century.
Green manure crop is grown for a specific period and then ploughed under and incorporated into the soil.
H
Hazardous waste. Waste that poses a risk to human health or the environment and needs to be handled and disposed of carefully. Examples include oil-based paints, car batteries, weed killers, bleach and waste electrical and electronic devices.
Herbicide resistance The ability of a plant to withstand herbicide. Herbicide resistance has been one of the early targets of plant genetic engineering. If a herbicide is sprayed onto a field planted with such resistant crops, then all the plants except the crop would be killed, thus providing an effective method of weed control without having to develop herbicides specific to each weed type. There is substantial concern in some quarters about the widespread use of this technology, which is essentially giving the plant kingdom the ability to evade man's most effective herbicides. The concern are that, firstly, such engineering will lead to increased use of the herbicides, at a time when it is generally accepted that the use of chemicals should be kept as low as possible, and that, secondly, there is the possibility that resistant crop plants will escape to become weeds, or that their resistant genes could be transferred to other species, including weeds.
Herbicide. A substance that kills plants. Used in agriculture, horticulture and gardening. Can be selective (kill selected species) or non-selective (broad spectrum - kill all plants).
Household waste. Waste that contains paper, cardboard, textiles (for example fabric or carpet), timber, food, garden clippings, glass, plastic and other manufactured materials.
I
Identity preservation: The segregation of one crop type from another at every stage from production and processing to distribution. This process is usually performed through audits and site visits and provides independent third-party verification of the segregation.
Impact. It is a change which is caused by an activity which affects the natural, economical and social elements of the environment, directly or indirectly, for a long or short period, permanently or temporarily, positively or negatively.
Incineration. Burning of garbage in special facilities utilizing inherent thermal values of solid wastes.
Inactivated agent A virus, bacterium or other organism that has been treated to prevent it from causing a disease.
Incinerator. A device in which solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous combustible material is buernt as a means of disposal. If the material does not support combustin auxiliary fuel is added. Many types of industrial and domestic wastes are incinerated and there are many types of incinerator to deal with different wastes.
Insecticide. A chemical that kills insects.
Intellectual property (IP). The content of the human intellect, or the result of intellectual effort, which is considered to be unique and original and have value in the marketplace, and therefore requires legal protection and ownership. This includes copyrighted material such as literary or artistic works, industrial processes, and trademarks and patents.
Insecticide resistance: The development or selection of heritable traits (genes) in an insect population that allow individuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of levels of an insecticide (biological or chemical control agent) that would otherwise debilitate or kill this species of insect. The presence of such resistant insects makes the insecticide less useful for managing pest populations.
Insect-resistance management: A strategy for delaying the development of pesticide resistance by maintaining a portion of the pest population in a refuge that is free from contact with the insecticide. For Bt crops this allows the insects feeding on the Bt toxin to mate with insects not exposed to the toxin produced in the plants.
Insect-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel insects and thereby prevent them from feeding on the plant. The traits (genes) determining resistance may be selected by plant breeders through cross-pollination with other varieties of this crop or through the introduction of novel genes such as Bt genes through genetic engineering.
Intellectual property rights: The legal protection for inventions, including new technologies or new organisms (such as new plant varieties). The owner of these rights can control their use and earn the rewards for their use. This encourages further innovation and creativity for the benefit of us all. Intellectual property rights protection includes various types of patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
Integrated forest management: Forest management plans that accommodate the need to harvest timber from landscapes, while also sustaining other values, such as hunted wildlife, outdoor recreation, and biodiversity.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a broad based approach that integrates a range of practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level (EIL).
Interplanting is the practice of planting a fast-growing crop between a slower-growing one.
Invasive alien: Refers to non-native species that survive in wild habitats and possibly aggressively out-compete native species or cause other kinds of ecological damage.
J
Jiffy potTM - Pots made from wood pulp and peat, commonly used for transplanting tissue-culture-derived plants into soil medium.
Joint Forest Management (JFM). A variant of community forestry widely adopted in India for managing government-owned forest in which responsibility and benefits are shared between local user groups and government forestry departments.
juvenile in vitro embryo technology (JIVT; JIVET) A technology involving collection of immature ova from young animals, in vitro maturation of those ova, in vitro fertilization, and then transfer of the resultant embryos into recipient females. A method of achieving rapid generation turnover.
K
Kanr. Kanamycin resistance gene.
Kanamycin. An antibiotic of the aminoglycoside family that poisons translation by binding to the ribosomes.
Karyotype. A picture of an individual's chromosomes as seen under a microscope. The chromosomes can be identified by their unique banding patterns and arranged in order of size (1 is the largest and 22 is the smallest). The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes -- a female has two X chromosomes and a male has one X and one Y chromosome. The karyotype is a test sometimes requested by a physician to look for major changes in the chromosomes, such as a change in the number (for example, trisomy or monosomy) or the structure.
Karyotyping (traditional). A laboratory technique that allows scientists to view all of the human chromosomes at one time in black and white. It is useful for observing the number, size and shape of the chromosomes. Interpreting these karyotypes requires an expert, who might need hours to examine a single chromosome.
Spectral karyotyping, on the other hand, "paints" each pair of chromosomes in a different fluorescent colour. Even non-experts can see instances where a chromosome, painted in one colour, has a small piece of a different chromosome, painted in another colour, attached to it.
Knock In. Replacement of a gene by a mutant version of the same gene using homologous recombination.
Knock Out. Inactivation of a gene by homologous recombination following transfection with a suitable DNA construct.
L
Landfill. The disposal of refuse by tipping it on land. Often the refuse is used to fill in old mine workings or low-lying land, to reclaim land from water or to create a feature on flat land. If the refuse is deposited in prepared trenches or holes, over which earth can be heaped at the and of each day, this is called controlled tipping in the UK and Sanitary Land-Fill in the USA.
Land use. The deployment of land for any use. Competition for limited areas of land requires the establishment of priorities among claims, which is the object of land use planning.
Latent. Currently inactive but capable of becoming active.
Leachate. Water that has percolated through soil, or a filter material, containing soluble substance and that, therefore, contain amounts of these substances in solution.
Leaching . The removal of the soluble constituents of a rock, soil or ore (that which is leached being known as the leachate) by the action of percolating waters. Leaching is a major process in the development of porosity in limestones in the secondary enrichment of ores and in the formation of soils.
Lentic ecosystem: A freshwater ecosystem characterized by nonflowing water, such as a pond or lake. Compare with lotic ecosystem.
Litter. Waste that is thrown away carelessly, mainly made up of plastic, metal, glass, paper or food. Common examples are chewing gum and cigarette butts.
Liquid waste: Variable urban wastes that include sewage and discarded industrial and household fluids.
Liquid nitrogen- Nitrogen gas condensed to a liquid with a boiling point of about -196°C. Very commonly the medium in which containers of genetic material are stored. See cryopreservation.
Lithification: A geological process in which materials are aggregated, densified, and cemented into new sedimentary rocks.
M
Macroclimate: Climatic conditions affecting an extensive area. Compare with microclimate.
Macroevolution: The evolution of species or higher taxonomic groups, such as genera, families, or classes. Compare with microevolution.
Marsh: A productive wetland, typically dominated by species of monocotyledonous angiosperm plants that grow as tall as several metres above the water surface.
MBT. Short for ‘mechanical biological treatment’, which is a way of sorting and treating waste. The waste is first sorted mechanically into materials that can and cannot be recycled. Any waste that can be recycled is then broken down biologically, often through composting, while the rest is usually sent to landfill. See also composting.
Micronutrient. (Gr. mikros, small + L. nutrire, to nourish) For growth media: An essential element normally required in concentrations < 0.5 millimole/litre.
Micro-organism. Organism visible only under magnification.
Municipal waste. Substances discarded as unusable by private households, offices, shops, etc., but not the waste products of industrial processing or manufacturing. Municipal waste is composed typically of paper, organic matter, plastics, metals and non-metallic minerals (e.g., ash). Historically, the content of plastics has increased rapidly, and the ash content has decreased. Such waste is generally collected for disposal by incineration, LAND-FILL, COMPOSTING or DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, and in some areas it is used as fuel to generate
Mycorrhizae. Fungi that form symbiotic relationships with roots of more developed plants.
Metagenomics is the analysis of genomic DNA obtained directly from a whole community of organisms inhabiting an environment.
Metatranscriptomics (environmental) retrieves and sequences environmental mRNAs from a microbial ecosystem to assess which genes may be expressed in that community.
Monocropping is the high-yield agricultural practice of growing a single crop year after year on the same land, in the absence of rotation through other crops.
N
National Institutions of Health (NIH). A nonregulatory agency which has oversight of research activities that the agency funds.
Natural population change: A change in population that is due only to the difference in birth and death rates, and not to immigration or emigration.
Natural resource: A source of material or energy that is extracted (harvested) from the environment.
Natural selection: A mechanism of evolution, favouring individuals that, for genetically based reasons, are better adapted to coping with environmental opportunities and constraints. These more fit individuals have an improved probability of leaving descendants, ultimately leading to genetically based changes in populations, or evolution.
Nanotechnology. From the Latin nanus = "dwarf", so it literally means "dwarf technology". The word was originally coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to refer to high precision machining. However, Richard Feynman and K. Eric Drexler later popularized the concept of nanotechnology as a new and developing technology in which humans manipulate objects whose dimensions are approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. Theoretically, it is possible that in the future a variety of human-made "nano-assemblers" (that is, tiny [molecular] machines smaller than a grain of sand) could manufacture those things that are produced in factories today. For example, enzyme molecules function essentially as jigs and machine tools to shape large molecules as they are formed in biochemical reactions. The technology also encompasses biochips, biosensors and manipulating atoms and molecules in order to form (build) bigger, but still microscopic functional structures and machines.
Net ecosystem productivity: The amount of ecosystem-level productivity that remains after respiration is subtracted from gross productivity.
Net primary production (NPP): Primary production that remains as biomass after primary producers have accounted for their respiratory needs. See also respiration and gross primary production.
Niche: The role of a species within its community.
Nitrification: The bacterial oxidation of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrate (NO3–).
Nitrogen fixation: The oxidation of nitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3) or nitric oxide (NO).
Nitrogen fixers are microorganisms that convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, using a complex enzyme system known as nitrogenase.
Noise pollution: When the level of ambient sound becomes distracting to the normal activities of people. At a higher intensity it can cause hearing impairment.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Charities and other not- for-profit organizations. See also environmental non-governmental organizations.
Non-renewable resource (non-renewable natural resource): A resource present on Earth in finite quantities, so as it is used, its future stocks are diminished. Examples are metals and fossil fuels. Compare with renewable resources.
Non-target damage: Damage caused by a pesticide to non-target organisms. See also broad-spectrum pesticide and non-target organism.
Non-target organism: Organisms that are not pests, but which may be affected by a pesticide treatment. See also broad-spectrum pesticide and non-target damage.
Nutrient: Any chemical required for the proper metabolism of organisms.
Nutrient budget: A quantitative estimate of the rates of nutrient input and output for an ecosystem, as well as the quantities present and transferred within the system.
Nutrient capital: The amount of nutrients present in a site in soil, living vegetation, and dead organic matter.
Nutrient cycling: Transfers and chemical transformations of nutrients in ecosystems, including recycling through decomposition.
O
Oil spill. The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually through water, which is very difficult to clean up and often kills birds, fish and other wildlife.
Organic. In this guide, matter from living, or once-living, things.
Organic farming. Farming without the use of industrially made fertilizers and pesticides, according the principles laid down by Sir Albert Howard, Lady Eve Balfour and others, and as modernized and interpreted in Britain by the Soil Association.
Organic matter. Amount of remainder after drying and incinerating of a sample into an oven at 6250 C for 3 hours, which is taken from solid wastes or composts.
Organic agriculture: A concept and practice of agricultural production that focuses on production without the use of synthetic inputs and does not allow the use of transgenic organisms. USDA's National Organic Program has established a set of national standards for certified organic production which are available online.
Outbreeding A mating system characterized by the breeding of genetically unrelated or dissimilar individuals. Since genetic diversity (q.v.) tends to be enhanced and since vigour or fitness of individuals can be increased by this process, it is often used to counter the detrimental effects of continuous inbreeding.
Outcrossing: Mating between different populations or individuals of the same species that are not closely related. The term "outcrossing" can be used to describe unintended pollination by an outside source of the same crop during hybrid seed production.
P
Patent: A government grant giving exclusive rights to the inventor to make, use or sell an invention for a period of 20 years from the date when a patent application is filed. Patents are granted for products and processes that are considered new, workable and ingenious - that is, novel, useful and inventive - or for useful improvements to some existing invention.
Pathogenicity. The ability to cause disease.
Pathogen. (Gr. pathos, suffering + genesis, beginning) An organism that causes a disease in another organism.
Pathogen-free. Freedom from disease-causing organisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.).
Parasite. An organism that lives in or on a host organism and uses it as a source of food and shelter, to the detriment of the host.
Pesticides. A general term for any chemicals that are used to kill weeds, fungi, insects or other pests.
Post-consumer waste. Waste collected after a consumer has disposed of it, for example sweet wrappers or packaging from small electronic goods such as mobile phones or MP3 players.
Pathogen: An agent that causes disease, especially a living microorganism such as a bacterium or fungus.
Pesticide: A broad term that defines all chemical substances used to control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi and other "pests" on plants, fruits, vegetables and animals, and in buildings. Fungicides, herbicides, sanitizers, growth regulators, rodenticides, soil fumigants and insecticides are all pesticides.
Pesticide treadmill: The inherent reliance of modern agriculture and public-health programs on pesticides, often in increasing quantities, to deal with pest problems.
Petroleum (crude oil): A fluid, hydrocarbon-rich mixture mined from certain geological formations.
Plasmid: A DNA structure that is separate from the cell's genome and can replicate independently of the host cell. Plasmids are used in the laboratory to deliver specific DNA sequences into a cell.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A laboratory method used to make many copies of a DNA fragment in minutes using an enzyme called polymerase.
Pest-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel pests and thereby prevent them from damaging the plants. Plant pests may include insects, nematodes, fungi, viruses, bacteria, weeds, and other.
Pesticide resistance: The development or selection of heritable traits (genes) in a pest population that allow individuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of levels of a pesticide (biological or chemical control agent) that would otherwise debilitate or kill this pest. The presence of such resistant pests makes the pesticide less useful for managing pest populations.
Phenotype: The visible and/or measurable characteristics of an organism (how it appears outwardly).
Plant breeding: The use of cross-pollination, selection, and certain other techniques involving crossing plants to produce varieties with particular desired characteristics (traits) that can be passed on to future plant generations.
Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs): Pesticidal substances introduced into plants by genetic engineering that are produced and used by the plant to protect it from pests. The protein toxins of Bt are often used as PIPs in the formation of Bt crops.
Plant pests: Organisms that may directly or indirectly cause disease, spoilage, or damage to plants, plant parts or processed plant materials. Common examples include certain insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, molds, viruses, and bacteria.
Promoter: A region of DNA that regulates the level of function of other genes.
Protein: A molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs, and each protein has a unique function.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A technique used to create a large number of copies of a target DNA sequence of interest. One use of PCR is in the detection of DNA sequences that indicate the presence of a particular genetically engineered organism.
Phytohormones participate in the control of many important physiological processes of plants such as cell enlargement, cell division, root initiation and growth rate. The effects on the plant could be direct, through plant growth promotion, or indirect, through improving plant nutrition via better development of the roots.
Plant Growth Promoting Fungi are rhizosphere fungi able to promote plant growth when colonising the plant root.
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria are free-living bacteria that colonise roots or rhizosphere soil some of which invade the tissues of plants and cause latent and asymptomatic infection, and affect plant growth and development directly or indirectly. Direct mechanisms include the production of stimulatory bacterial volatiles and phytohormones, lowering of the ethylene level in the plant (phytostimulators), improvement of the plant nutrient status (mobilise phosphates and micronutrients from insoluble sources, non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation), and stimulation of disease-resistance mechanisms (induced systemic resistance). Indirect mechanisms comprise the action of PGPRs like biocontrol agents, reducing diseases by the stimulation of other beneficial symbioses, or controlling diseases mainly by the production of antibiotics and antifungal metabolites (biopesticides), and, moreover, protecting the plants by degrading xenobiotics like organic pollutants in contaminated soils (rhizoremediators).
Pyrosequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the "sequencing by synthesis" principle. This method relies on the detection of pyrophosphate release on nucleotide incorporation, rather than chain termination with dideoxynucleotides
Primary production: Productivity by autotrophic organisms, such as plants or algae. Often measured as biomass accumulated over a unit of time, or sometimes by the amount of carbon fixed.
Primary sewage treatment: The initial stage of sewage treatment, usually involving the filtering of larger particles from the sewage wastes, settling of suspended solids, and sometimes chlorination to kill pathogens.
Q
Quadrivalent. A chromosome configuration visible in late prophase and metaphase of the first meiotic division, where four chromosomes are linked by chiasmata. Can occur in autotetraploids when four homologous chromosomes pair, or in diploids as a result of heterozygosity for a reciprocal translocation between two non-homologous chromosomes.
Quadruplex. The inheritance of alleles in autotetraploids. A genotype AAAa will produce gametes AA, Aa in the ratio 3:1.
Qualitative trait. A trait that shows discontinuous variation - i.e. individuals can be assigned to one of a small number of discrete classes.
Quantitative genetics. The area of genetics concerned with the inheritance of quantitative traits that show continuous variation, as opposed to qualitative traits. Since many of the critical targets in both plant and animal breeding are of this type, most practical improvement programs involve the application of quantitative genetics.
Quantitative inheritance. Inheritance of measurable traits that depend on the cumulative action of many genes and/or involve a significant proportion of non-genetic determination.
Quantitative structure-activity relationship(Abbreviation QSAR). A computer modelling technique that enables the prediction of the likely activity of a molecule before it is synthesized. QSAR analysis relies on recognizing associations of molecular structures and activity from historical data.
Quantitative trait. A measurable trait that shows continuous variation (e.g. height, weight, colour intensity, etc.) - i.e. the population cannot be classified into a few discrete classes.
Quantitative trait locus(Abbreviation: QTL). A locus where allelic variation is associated with variation in a quantitative trait. The presence of a QTL is inferred from genetic mapping, where the total variation is partitioned into components linked to a number of discrete chromosome regions.
Quantum speciation . The rapid formation of new species, primarily by genetic drift.
Quarantine. Isolation for a period after arrival in a new location, to allow any pre-existing disease symptoms to appear. Used in the context of regulations restricting the sale or shipment of living organisms, usually to prevent disease or pest invasion of an area.
Quaternary structure. A level of protein structure where several individual molecules assemble together and form a functional cluster. A classic example is haemoglobin, a complex of four myoglobin-like units.
Quarantine (It. quarantina, from quaranta, forty) Originally, keeping a person or living organism in isolation for a period (originally 40 days) after arrival to allow disease symptoms to appear, if there was any disease present. Now used for regulations restricting the sale or shipment of living organisms, usually to prevent disease or pest invasion of an area.
R
Recycling. Procedure which is carried out without any chemical and biological treatment for some reusable materials such as paper, plastic, glass and can. These materials can be returned into economical processes.
Remediation: Specific actions undertaken to deal with particular problems of environmental quality, such as the liming of acidic lakes and rivers to decrease their ecological damage. Compare with restoration and reclamation.
Renewable resource. A resource that can be exploited without depletion because it is constantly replenished. The includes agricultural crops and fish, provided stocks are not over fished, and is extended to cover the energy of solar radiation, wind, waves and tides.
Renewable energy. Energy from renewable resources such as wind power, solar energy or biomass.
Response: In ecotoxicology, this refers to biological or ecological changes caused by exposure to an environmental stressor.
Restoration: Establishment of a self-maintaining facsimile of a natural ecosystem on degraded land, as when abandoned farmland is converted back to a native prairie or forest. Compare with reclamation and remediation.
Restoration ecology: Activities undertaken by ecologists to repair ecological damage, such as establishing vegetation on degraded habitat, increasing the populations of endangered species, and decreasing the area of threatened ecosystems.
Reuse. To use an item more than once for the same purpose, which helps save money, time, energy and resources?
Rhizophere. The part of the soil immediately surrounding roots. Roots alter the nutrient status of the soil close to them by absorbing minerals and releasing other substances. This leads to an increase in the numbers of microorganisms and often alters the relative proportions of the different kinds of microorganisms present.
Run-off. Water from rain or snow that runs off the surface of the land and into streams and rivers.
Regional Climate Outlook Forums, active in several parts of the world, routinely provide realtime regional climate outlook products.
S
Salinization: The buildup of soluble salts in the soil surface, an important agricultural problem in drier regions.
Sanitary landfill: A facility where municipal solid waste is dumped, compacted by heavy machines, and covered with a layer of clean dirt at the end of the day. Some have systems to contain and collect liquid effluent, known as leachate.
Secondary pollutants: Pollutants that are not emitted, but form in the environment by chemical reactions involving emitted chemicals. Compare with primary pollutants.
Secondary sewage treatment: Treatment applied to the effluent of primary sewage treatment, usually involving the use of a biological technology to aerobically decompose organic wastes in an engineered environment. The resulting sludge can be used as a soil conditioner, incinerated, or dumped into a landfill. See also primary sewage treatment.
Sedimentary rock: Rock formed from precipitated minerals such as calcite, or from lithified particles eroded from other rocks such as sandstone, shale, and conglomerates.
Sedimentation: A process by which mass eroded from elsewhere settles to the bottom of rivers, lakes, or an ocean.
Sewage. Liquid wastes from communities, which may be a mixture of domestic effluent from homes and liquid waste from industry.
Smog. Air pollution consisting of smoke and fog, which occurs in large urban and industrial areas and is mainly caused by the action of sunlight on burned fuels, mostly from car exhausts. Smog can cause eye irritations and breathing problems and damage plant life.
Sludge: A solid or semi-solid precipitate that settles from polluted water during treatment; sludge is produced during the treatment of sewage and also in pulp mills and some other industrial facilities. It may be disposed of in a landfill, but if organic, can be used as a beneficial soil amendment.
Solid State Fermentation (SSF) consists of the microbial growth and product formation on solid particles in the absence (or near absence) of free water.
Solid wastes: Extremely variable municipal wastes that include discarded food, garden discards, newspapers, bottles, cans, construction debris, old cars, and disused furniture.
Submerged fermentation (SmF) is characterised by the cultivation of microorganisms in a liquid medium.
Sustainability is the adoption of practices that allow for the longterm maintenance of the productive capacity, the viability and quality of life, and conservation of the environment and resource base.
T
Temperate deciduous forest: A forest occurring in relatively moist, temperate climates with short and moderately cold winters and warm summers, and usually composed of a mixture of angiosperm tree species.
Temperate grassland: Grass-dominated ecosystems occurring in temperate regions with an annual precipitation of 25–60 cm per year; sufficient to prevent desert from developing but insufficient to support forest.
Temperate rainforest: A forest developing in a temperate climate in which winters are mild and precipitation is abundant year-round. Because wildfire is rare, old-growth forests may be common.
Toxic. Poisonous or harmful to the body (exotoxic relates to damage to the environment).
Toxin. A poisonous substance that can either be natural (produced by plants, animals or bacteria) or manufactured.
Toxic waste: Waste that is poisonous to humans, animals, or plants. See also hazardous waste.
Toxicology: The science of the study of poisons, including their chemical nature and their effects on the physiology of organisms. Compare with environmental toxicology and ecotoxicology.
Traditional fuels: The non-commercial use of wood, charcoal, animal dung, and other biomass fuels for subsistence purposes, primarily for cooking food and heating homes. See also total energy production and commercial energy production.
Transcription: A biochemical process by which the information of double-stranded DNA is encoded on complementary single strands of RNA, which are used to synthesize specific proteins.
Translation: A biochemical process occurring on organelles known as ribosomes, in which information encoded in messenger RNA is used to synthesize particular proteins.
Transpiration: The evaporation of water from plants. Compare with evapotranspiration.
Tissue culture. The separation of cells from each other and their growth in a container of liquid nutrients.
Trait. A characteristic of an organism.
Transgenic. The insertion or splicing of specific genetic sequences from one species into the functioning genome of an unrelated species to transfer desired properties for human purposes. This may be viewed as a more precise form of hybridization or plant/animal breeding, with the added consideration that genetic material from species significantly different from one another is involved (for example, the insertion of genetic material from an animal into a plant or vice versa). Another possibility is the transfer of genetically controlled properties between different animal species, such as the breeding of goats whose milk yields spider silk for possible development of new structural materials.
See Genetically modified organisms.
Tillage refers to the turning of the soil to bury crop residues, manure and weeds.
U
Urban area. An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.
Urbanisation. Urbanization (or urbanisation) is the increasing number of people that live in urban areas.
Ultraviolet light; ultraviolet radiation (UV). The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from about 100 to 400 nm; between ionizing radiation (X-rays) and visible light. UV is absorbed by DNA and is highly mutagenic to unicellular organisms and to the epidermal cells of multicellular organisms. UV light is used in tissue culture for its mutagenic and bactericidal properties.
Urban planning: An active process of designing better ways of organizing the structure and function of cities, including an orderly siting of land uses and activities.
Urbanization: The development of cities and towns on formerly agricultural or natural lands.
V
Value added: The increased value of something as a result of manufacturing or some other improvement.
Valued ecosystem components (VECs): In environmental impact assessment, these are components of ecosystems perceived to be important to society as economically important resources, as rare or endangered species or communities, or for their cultural or aesthetic significance.
Variable: A changeable factor believed to influence a natural phenomenon of interest or that can be manipulated during an experiment.
Viable. Capable of germinating, living, growing and developing.
Vibrio. Comma-shaped bacterium.
Volcano. A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in the surface or crust of the Earth or a planetary mass object, which allows hot lava, volcanic ashand gases to escape from the magma chamber below the surface.
W
Wash-out. The loss of the slower growing micro-organism when two organisms are being grown together.
Waste: Any discarded materials. See also hazardous waste and toxic waste.
Waste management: The handling of discarded materials using various methods. See also dumping, incineration, recycling, composting, reuse, and waste reduction.
Waste reduction: Practices intended to reduce the amount of waste that must be disposed of. Also known as waste prevention.
Waste-to-energy facility: An incinerator that burns organic waste and uses the heat generated to produce commercial energy.
Waste management. The management of waste collection, handling, processing, storage and transport from where it is produced to where it is finally disposed. See waste prevention.
Waste prevention. An aspect of waste management that involves reducing the amount of waste we produce and minimising the potential harm to human health or the environment from packaging or ingredients in products.
Weed. Simply any plant growing where it is not wanted. In agriculture, used for a plant which has good colonizing capability in a disturbed environment, and can usually compete with a cultivated species therein. Weeds are typically considered as unwanted, economically useless or pest species.
X
Xanthophyll. A yellow oxygen-containing carotenoid, present in chloroplasts
Xenia. The immediate effect of pollen on some characters of the endosperm.
Xenobiotic. A chemical compound that is not produced by, and often cannot be degraded by, living organisms.
Xenogeneic. Refers to organs, genetically engineered ("humanized") todecrease the chance of rejection, that have been grown in an animal of another species for potential transplant to humans.
Xenotransplantation. The transplantation of tissue or organs from one species to another species, typically from pigs to humans. Zoonoses are an important issue.
Xenogeneic organs. Xenogeneic literally means "strange genes". Refers to genetically engineered (for example, "humanized") organs that have been grown within an animal of another species.
Xenografts. A type of tissue graft in which the donor and recipient are of different species. Also called heterographs.
Xenotransplantation. The transplantation of living cells, tissues and organs from one species to another. The term is usually used to describe animal-to-human transplants. An example is the transplant of a kidney from a pig to a human. The principal reason for medical and scientific inquiry in this area is to find alternatives to human organs and tissue transplants.
Xenosis (xenozoonoses). A term coined from the word "xenozoonoses". It describes the transfer of infections by transplantation of xenogeneic tissues or organs. It potentially poses unique epidemiological hazards due to the efficiency of transmission of pathogens, particularly viruses, with viable, cellular grafts.
Xerophyte. A plant very resistant to drought, typically adapted to extremely dry environments.
Xenotransplantation. Transplantation of cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another.
X-linked. The presence of a gene on the X-chromosome.
X-linked disease. A genetic disease caused by an allele at a locus on the X-chromosome.
Xylem. A complex tissue specialized for the conduction of water and mineral nutrients in solution. Xylem may also function as a supporting tissue, particularly secondary xylem.
Xenobiotics are chemical compounds with a structure or substituent on their structure that is not found in natural compounds.
Y
Yeast extract. A mixture of substances from yeast. of organic complex; undefined.
Yeast. A unicellular ascomycete fungus, commonly found as a contaminant in plant tissue culture.
Yeast cloning vectors. The yeasts, and especially Saccaromyces cerevisiae, are favourite organisms in which to clone and express DNA. They are eukaryotes, and so can splice out introns, the non-coding sequences in the middle of many eukaryotic genes.
Z
Zero population growth (ZPG): When the birth rate plus immigration equal the death rate plus emigration.
Zooplankton: Tiny animals that occur in the water column of lakes and oceans
Zoospore. A spore that possesses flagella and is therefore motile.
Zygospore. (Gr. zygon, a yoke + spore) A thick-walled resistant spore developing from a zygote resulting from the fusion of isogametes.
Zygote. (Gr. zygon, a yoke) A diploid cell formed by the fusion of two haploid gametes during fertilization in eukaryotic organisms with sexual reproduction. It is the first cell of the new individual.
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